We narrowed to 888 results for: URE

...kDa. GFP and its homologues have a beta-barrel structure. Although the beta barrel has no strong affinity...binding sites per unit.  There are several ways to measure stickiness. In vitro, ultracentrifugation or gel...dimerization (Shaner et al., 2008 - supplementary figure C). However, these assays are qualitative. The ...Reticulum (OSER) assay (Costantini et al., 2012) measures homodimerization of FPs targeted to the endoplasmid...sequences or (ii) designed to form an inert, unstructured peptide and therefore consisted of glycines,... GFP sticks out and can be considered a linker (figure 1). In fact, for several FRET biosensors (yellow...Golgi, whereas the mVenus-APT1 fusion does not (figure 2). In the mVenus-APT1, a lipidation motif, which...

...variants:   Figure 2: Inner mitochondrial membranes imaged with structured illumination microscopy...incubation, even with multiplexed guides. Figure 1: A) Cell-penetrating Cas9, fused to HIV TAT, ...primary cells using peptide-assisted genome editing. Nature Biotechnology, 10.1038/s41587-023-01756-1. https...Although it quickly saw wide interest, its dimeric nature can interfere with some applications. Several labs...molecular fusion and membrane-targeting applications. Nature Methods, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41592-023...2023). A monomeric StayGold fluorescent protein. Nature Biotechnology, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587...observed in young macaques and vascular bias in mature marmosets. CAP-Mac also robustly expressed fluorescent...

...gleaned from the literature and engagement with researchers who study the protein or structure of interest....alleninstitute.org. A classic challenge in cell biology is making sure that what we observe through the microscope represents...case of protein tagging to elucidate cellular structures. Overexpression methods flood the cell with protein...visualize the precise location of the protein or structure of interest. Endogenous gene tagging is an ideal.... Furthermore, the quality control necessary to ensure the edited cells are behaving normally can be prohibitively...tagged are widely recognized markers of cellular structures, we provide guidance on how to make your own ... Collection Fluorescent tagging strategy Figure 1: Gene editing is the addition of a useful coding...

...the proper controls needed to pressure-test your FRET assay to make sure it is working? This article addresses...resonance energy transfer measurements of ryanodine receptor type 1 structure using a novel site-specific...donor/acceptor fluorophores (Stryer, 1978), a measurement that is unaffected by intervening proteins, lipid...blog has an excellent primer on FRET and how to measure it). Molecular mailbox: How to get your fluorophore... on the same street as the donor), then FRET measurements are possible. In fact, even if the majority ...properly targeted donor/acceptor pairs, then any measureable FRET will be swamped out by a sea of uncoupled..., but even these modifications can affect the structure or function of certain proteins. Rather than shove...

...introduced mutations that drive leukemia (Figure 3). Figure 3: Using LARRYv2 libraries for state-...expansion cultures. A) Experimental design. B) UMAP of cell states in ex vivo expansion cultures from days...maintaining high brightness and fast maturation time (Figure 1). See the paper for more details on small differences...mGold2t depending on the application. Figure 1: Super-resolution imaging of actin filaments ...yellow fluorescent proteins for extended imaging. Nature Communications, 16(1), 3241. https://doi.org/10.1038... an RNA guide (known as an omega RNA, or ωRNA) (Figure 2), but TnpB is small enough to be carried by viral...less than a third of the size of Cas9). Figure 2: Comparison of TnpB (A) and Cas9 (B) genome editors...

...commonly called “triple plasmid transfection” (Figure 1).    Figure 1: Overview of key steps of AAV production...understand how different titers are measured. A TCID50 measurement reports an infectious titer, meaning...Whitney, O., Walther, N., & Maurer, A. C. (2023). Transgene Expression in Cultured Cells Using Unpurified ...with standard molecular biology tools and tissue culture experience. Here, we’ll go over the basics of rAAV...rAAV production.  Of course, you will want to make sure that your final stocks only contain rAAV. To minimize...contamination, use appropriate decontamination procedures (Korte et al., 2021) for all disposable items...into contact with the rAAV and apply common cell culture practices diligently throughout the production ...

... efficiencies using sequence features and DNA repair determinants. Nature Biotechnology 2023, 1–11. https... evaluate all of the pegRNAs in one experiment (Figure 1). Through this method, we found key determinants...Once we had our datasets with all the different features and editing efficiencies, we could train our prediction...very diverse edit types and cell contexts. Figure 1: High-throughput screening of pegRNA efficiency...downstream flanking sequences to their input string (Figure 2). This string can then be used as input for the...e.g., top 5) and test them in their labs. Figure 2: Guidelines to predict pegRNA efficiencies with...Mathis et al., 2024) and concurrent research by the Shendure lab (Li et al., 2024) have highlighted how chromatin...

... SDS-PAGE, measure the protein content and normalize to ensure equivalent loading. Denature the samples...antibodies.   Figure 1: Overview of the Western blot process. The sample, a mixture of protein is separated...denaturing western, the protein is denatured to its primary structure and separated by size with smaller...western, the protein’s secondary and tertiary structures remain intact and the protein is separated through... expensive system-specific sandwiches.   Figure 2: The western blot dry apparatus includes a stack...its native state while a western blot detects denatured polypeptide chains. The protein regions available... antibody validation. This level of validation ensures that the antibody is staining the intended target...

...of Addgene’s work culture. Our developers are a diverse group of ethnicities, cultures, genders, educational... for working on a new feature. We start with a story that describes the feature and what the criteria ...stakeholder accepts the new feature as done and we’re onto the next story. Figure 1: Addgene’s Agile Approach...working on a feature, sometimes we have to take short cuts or add a band-aid to get a feature to work. We...number of stories we commit to for each sprint, to ensure we will have the capacity to finish all of the ...criteria is for accepting the feature as done correctly. These initial stories are usually a result of collaborations...step-by-step instructions on how to demonstrate the feature. For example, we recently reduced the number of...

...sequence (Zong et al., 2018) (see CBE-3 in Figure 3). Figure 3: Activity windows of plant base editors...excision repair mediated by uracil glycosylase (Figure 1). The presence of a uracil glycosylase inhibitor...generation of the desired T-A base pair. Figure 1: Transition mutation (C>T, G>A, A>G, and T>C)... that compete with the desired outcome are not pictured. Adenine base editors (ABE) What if you have...satisfactorily accepts DNA as its substrate (see figure 2).          The artificially evolved adenosine...genomic A-T base pair is converted to a G-C pair (Figure 1). As the cellular inosine excision repair is ...base editing platforms for plant systems.  Figure 2: Plant base editor platforms and their molecular...

...better at 30°C or room-temperature, which is accomplished by growing your culture to the desired density...previous Plasmids 101 blog, we reviewed the salient features of several popular strains of E. coli for DNA ...except ** which are K12 Strain Resistance Key Features Genotype Use BL21 (DE3)   Basic IPTG-inducible...Denotes the presence of an additional plasmid-- make sure to maintain this by growing on appropriate media...timing is important, as you typically want to make sure your cells have first reached an appropriate density...expression. If you wait too long to induce, your culture will start collecting dead cells, and, conversely...too early as there are not enough cells in the culture to make protein.  The DE3 lysogen/T7 promoter combination...

...acceptor fluorophore can be measured using microscopy techniques. FRET measurement sensitivity makes it suitable...one of the first techniques which enabled the measurement of single molecule interactions in living cells...living cells. Since then FRET has also been used to measure conformational changes, cleavage activity using...is still one of the best and most used pairs to measure FRET. The table below lists plasmids that can be...and Venus Other issues that can affect FRET measurements include: the brightness of a fluorophore pair...between FRET efficiency and cross-talk. Methods to Measure FRET for Cell Biology Studies Several methods have... have been used over the past 20 years to measure FRET and there is not one that is better than another...

...environments: corrosive pH ranges, crushing pressures, near-melting temperatures, tons of radiation, or freezing ...Sreepadmanabh M from IISER Bhopal. All illustrations / figures featured were designed by our team member Kallol Mozumdar... take bacteria out of their optimally suited temperature ranges and make them grow better at suboptimal...cold-loving) bacteria. These bacteria inhabit cold temperature locales and psychrophilic enzymes help them survive...next-door microbes which grow optimally in moderate temperatures (usually defined between a fairly nippy 20°C...materials degrade at a much slower rate under cold temperatures, and frigid conditions decrease the potential...mesophilic host systems. The so-called “regular” temperatures of growth, say around 37°C, is a far cry from...

...method does provide a quantitative measure of autophagy, it only measures bulk autophagy (as opposed to giving... Long-lived protein degradation: This approach measures the degradation rate of radio-labeled long-lived...long-lived proteins as a proxy for autophagy. Cells are cultured with isotope-labeled amino acids for several hours...by measuring the amount of radioactivity in the culture supernatant (this is indicative of protein degradation...out of this assay. This is also a quantitative measure of autophagy, but, like the protein degradation...degradation assay above, it’s slow and only measures bulk autophagy. Morphological assays Electron microscopy...method relies on the identification of autophagic structures based on morphology. Autophagosomes are relatively...

...articles, only 46% could be reproduced. In a recent Nature report from researchers at Amgen, it was stated...that only 11% of the academic research in the literature was reproducible by their groups. Finally results..., it will always be a part of everyday work to capture ideas, write down certain notes or brainstorm, ...functionalities i.e. main priorities of different ELN features, ranging from whether respondents saw them as ...term, so they need a solution for which they are sure that there will be no sharp changes in costs once...researchers to store everything in one place. From pictures to excel sheets, researchers today generate vast...Following these findings, we defined the priorities for future ELN development and developed the SciNote Electronic...

...with CRISPR–Cas13. Nature, 550(7675), 280–284. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature24049 Altae-Tran, H., Kannan... ideas for your own research! Classification Structure Principles of CRISPR classification While CRISPR...six types, 33 subtypes, and 17 variants. Figure 1: Overview of the CRISPR classification hierarchy...using a Cascade complex is tricky, as you need to ensure every unit of the complex expresses at similar ...components present in the Cascade complex. Figure 2: Schematic of a Cascade complex (blue subunits...CRISPR types do, due to a lack of canonical CRISPR features (Pinilla-Redondo et al., 2019; Moya-Beltrán et... most often found on plasmids. The many unique features of IV-A and IV-B have led to the hypotheses that...

...to compare exposure times of our samples. A prominent, strong signal has a shorter exposure time than ... be essential to your new research project, but unsure which one will mark your target the best, or even...The strength is based on binding specificity and exposure time. We first have a negative control which does...align with what the atlases (mentioned above) and literature suggest, providing an expectation and comparison...imaged pattern does NOT align with the atlases/literature and is unrelated to the target protein, we categorize... goldilocks antibody selection process The exposure time of the primary antibody compared to negative...control also determines the signal’s strength. Exposure time is the amount of time the sample needs to...

...analyzes publications and figures using machine learning to extract important features such as influential ... top of the ever expanding body of biomedical literature! PubMed PubMed is the classic search engine ...eventually replace the existing version of PubMed.  Key features This new version has an improved search algorithm...updated. This Twitter list contains >300 Twitter literature bots, including a bot for biosensor papers, microbe...Semantic Scholar Semantic Scholar is an AI-backed literature search developed by the Allen Institute for Artificial...that are more relevant to your search terms. Key features Semantic Scholar has several ways to focus your... populated at the top of this filter. A unique feature of Semantic Scholar search results are the topic...

...noise and ensure you are measuring the events-of-interest. Sensors suitable for ER measurements include:... requiring only a simple measurement. However, single wavelength measurements are more susceptible to ... RE. Structure-and mechanism-guided design of single fluorescent protein-based biosensors. Nature chemical...subtype) and specific subcellular compartments for measurements. All of the sensors discussed below fall into...slower). GCaMPf may be suitable for very rapid measurements, like action potentials in neurons. jGCaMP7 ...additional versions are available to simultaneously measure calcium changes in the ER, cytosol and mitochondria...you combining your calcium reading with other measurements, specifically fluorescent ones? Many of the ...

...using cloning rings. A picture of a 60 mm dish ready for picking is shown in figure 1.   Find Additional... Protocol Pages Agarose cloning method procedure The procedure (illustrated in the YouTube video below...well plate is also prepared with about 200 ul of culture medium containing serum in each well. A 200 ul ...both Hepes and bicarbonate) is brought to room temperature and placed in the hood. The medium from a 10 ...is capped, swirled and tested for the correct temperature by placing on the wrist or cheek. Within less...warm but not hot- and still liquid- it is rapidly poured onto the middle of the plate, where it immediately...the agarose cloning method Test your agarose temperature. Cloning cells using an agarose overlay does ...

...editors for more details on how they work!) Figure 1: Base transitions are edits between the purine...side groups of DNA bases and leave the core ring structure intact, allowing them to make 4 out of the possible... Cas9 are sequence specificity and the R-loop structure. In order to bind DNA, Cas9 requires (1) a guide... a region of separate strands called an R-loop (Figure 2). This allows the guide RNA to base pair with...accessible on the outside of the enzyme. Figure 2: CRISPR R-loop. Created with BioRender.com. ...abasic sites with A's, producing C → A edits. Figure 3: Mechanism of cytosine transversion editors. ...experimented with adding different proteins to the CGBE architecture. They conducted a CRISPRi screen to identify...

...kinetics which are illustrated in figures 2 and 3.  Figure 2: Glutamate titration curves for ...from Aggarwal et al…, Supplementary Figure 3.   Figure 3: pH titration curves and ∆F/F0 for...recommend using the SGZ for in-culture work only, GPI anchors for in-culture work and 2P in vivo imaging,...using both 1-photon and 2-photon imaging.   Figure 1: 1P and 2P excitation and emission spectra of...iGluSnFR3 v857. Image adapted from Aggarwal et al., Figure 1   Increased versatility through two different...Image adapted from Aggarwal et al…, Supplementary Figure 2.   Improved trafficking and localization... constructs. Image adapted from Aggarwal et al… Figure 4. PDGFR is a C-terminal fusion to the PDGFR transmembrane...

...content we store in them: music, emails, chats, pictures, and apps. Throughout my time as a graduate student...allowing you to upload anything from protocols to pictures of gels or even sketches to your notebook. The...saving trees! The Earth thanks you. 2. Gibco Cell Culture by Gibco Whenever I start to learn a new technique...I digress. When I started learning proper cell culture technique, I tried to find an app that could help...calculations. This is how I came across the Gibco Cell Culture app. Gibco organizes its app into four categories...are a lifesaver when your research requires cell culture and include a counter, lab timer, dilution calculator...calculator, and a couple of other nice features. This app also has a great educational section. This section...

...preparations are genome-containing (Figure 1).    Figure 1: Electron micrograph of an Addgene... by the temperature parameters. For example, we found that changing the annealing temperature of the PCR...viral vector solution, and generally these methods measure different characteristics of the solution. These... containing viral genomes. Physical titers are measured by quantifying the concentration of viral genomes... report the physical titer of a viral solution (Figure 2). Because physical titers are used for dosing...values mean and how they can be compared.   Figure 2: Label that comes on Addgene’s AAV aliquots. ...circled in red) report physical titer, which is measured by qPCR.   Physical titer is typically calculated...

... (see Figure 1). Oligo 2: Add 'ggcc' to the 5′ end of your reverse complement guide (see Figure 1). Perform... tissue culture-free heritable genome editing using RNA virus-based delivery in wheat. Nature Plants. ...single guide RNA (sgRNA) used in Cas systems. The structure is also reminiscent of sgRNAs, with reRNA containing...gene-edited plants without the need for tissue culture (Maher et al., 2020; Qiao et al., 2025). However...choice of promoter for ωRNA (reRNA) expression (see Figure 1). Both plasmids contain a hygromycin resistance...phosphorylation and annealing of the two oligos. Figure 1: Components of TnpB, schematic of pKb-TnpB1 and...transformation into plant cells. Conclusion & Future Directions TnpB represents a new generation of ...

... the process. Also refer to Figure 1 for a visual overview! Figure 1: General overview of the MoClo...dive directly into the pipetting! MoClo nomenclature and structure can be quite confusing for new users,...insert-to-vector ratio using the equation in Figure 3.    Figure 3: Calculation for the plasmid volume... MoClo a walk in the park.  Before you begin, be sure to check out Addgene’s MoClo guide for all the basics...assembly process to produce a multigene construct. Figure exemplifies the extraction and use of a coding ..., and have a clear vision of the final vector structure you want to achieve before starting your experiments...These overhangs are known as the common MoClo nomenclature. The overhangs are generated using type IIS ...

...solubility and stability (Figure 2).      Figure 2: Crystal structures of CRBNmidi alone (A) and...establishing CRBNmidi as a promising tool for future structure-guided drug design and studies of protein ...domains and is recommended for use in western blots (Figure 1). If you prefer to produce your own antibody ...chain are also available from Addgene!   Figure 1: Experimental validation for Anti-V5 [IPI-SV5...dimmer, showed greater photostability and also matured considerably faster, with expression levels comparable...comparable to GFP during early embryogenesis (Figure 3). mScarlet-I3 also offered clearer signals due to...autofluorescent tissues like the intestine. Figure 3: Expression of fluorophore-tagged GOLG-4 through...

...growing in requests faster than jGCaMP7 (Figure 5B).   Figure 5: A) GCaMP6, jGCaMP7, and jGCaMP8 viral...setup. Teams across Addgene have worked hard to ensure that the service has grown steadily, helped by ...our catalog had grown to 879 viral catalog items (Figure 1). The service caught on quickly in the scientific...distributed over 100,000 viral vector preps!   Figure 1: A) Cumulative AAV preps available in the Addgene... they’re delivering their payload to.   Figure 2: Numbers of AAV tools, by category, available...respectively, by substrates, light, or engineered ligands (Figure 2). Biosensors, which include calcium and voltage...explain why they are the most commonly requested (Figure 3). Over 400 biosensors were distributed in 2023...

...neuronal sub-cellular structures GFP is limited in its ability to label subcellular structures in the CNS. GFP...connections (Shepherd, 2004). Understanding the structure and function of these neural circuits is essential...experiments and visualize numerous molecules or structures at once (Shaner, 2007). In contrast to epitope...for the cells and affects the labeling of small structures like neurites. Like epitope tags, low FP expression...church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster; the smFP structure resembles images of the deity (see comparison ...processes. In contrast, smFPs can label fine neuronal structures with high fidelity and at lower concentrations...GFP. smFPs enable better labeling of these fine structures through their multiple, high-affinity binding...

... of temperature on total crop production and the production window. A two-way MANOVA could measure the..., you could test the impact of temperature, humidity, sunlight exposure time, and watering volume on total...power. Not sure if your data meets the assumptions of parametric tests? If you aren’t sure if your variance...outliers or data spread within those data sets. Measures of dispersion – standard deviation/error, variance...in a certain direction (i.e., you just want to measure if a sample is greater than a control), then a ...variable. A two-way ANOVA could test the effect of temperature and humidity on an outcome such as total crop... one-way ANOVA can test either the effect of temperature or humidity on crop production.   MANOVA The ...

... Figure 1: Schematic representations of the indicated unbiased genotyping options. Figure reproduced...other elements, including those relating to DNA structure (e.g. epigenetic modification, bulges) that may...conventional algorithms may not provide a full picture of the impact of CRISPR editing in the model cell...negatives Combining sequencing techniques can ensure validated experiments Unbiased detection methods...sequencing and in silico prediction should give a broad picture of all possible editing events in the genome; from...induced by CRISPR-Cas nucleases in human cells." Nature biotechnology 31.9 (2013): 822-826. PubMed PMID...reveals RNA-programmed Cas9 nuclease specificity." Nature biotechnology 31.9 (2013): 839-843. PubMed PMID...

...fluorescent protein mOrange2 (Figure 2). Figure 2: OCaMP structure and mechanism of action. Reproduced...brightness, ∆F/F0, or signal-to-noise ratio (Figure 3). Figure 3: One- and two-photon excitation and ... Figure 4: Calcium titration curves for OCaMP and various red and yellow GECIs measured with soluble...lasers available in your microscope setup. Figure 1: Excitation (dotted) and emission (solid) spectra...indicators spanning nearly the entire visible spectrum (Figure 1). The GCaMP series (e.g., jGCaMP8) remains the... yellow GECIs, OCaMP shows: Higher ΔF/F0 (the measure of signal change during calcium events), Greater...a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license. Figure 5: A) Simultaneous fluorescence (upper trace) and...

...downregulation. Figure 3 shows a histogram for a yes-no dot plot, like the one shown in Figure 1.  ...populations in the histogram plot in Figure 4 compared to the dot plot in Figure 2. Quantification using MFI makes...Before you read out your plots, you’ll want to make sure you’ve also adjusted voltage and compensated your...adjusting voltage: During data acquisition, make sure that the signal for the positive population is no...should overlap with the negative control population (Figure 1). Based on where the GFP- population ends, you... the total cells present in the gate.   Figure 1: Example of yes-no flow plot of the (negative...expression, low expression, and everything in between (Figure 2). These smears tend to occur when you are looking...

...Nishimasu H, Nureki O, Zhang F. Nature. 2015 Jan 29;517(7536):583-8. doi: 10.1038/nature14136. Epub 2014...Cas9’s crystal structure. “I thought maybe we could use information from the structure to guide and improve...technology. These libraries are lentiviral in nature, so please ensure that you are equipped and authorized to...genes, it is not possible to test each one and make sure it’s working. You can only do that screen with a... the SAM pooled library In a paper published in Nature in December, Konermann and her colleagues in Feng...-scale, knockout screening). As the Zhang lab's Nature paper reports, “Here we have shown that the SAM...Therapeutic uses in humans are also on the table. “In the future, there is potential there,” he says. "We have to...

...the purification procedure. Good indicators of DNA purity are the absorbance measurements at 230, 260, and...same. Before purifying a plasmid from a bacterial culture, it is important to consider your experiment.  ...Cloning grade DNA Transfection grade DNA Figure 1: Transformation introduces transformation grade...range). It can be extracted from small bacterial cultures (i.e. 2-3 ml) with or without commercially available...and DNA for transformation doesn’t need to be as pure as for other uses.   Cloning grade DNA Molecular...also dictate the required sizes of the bacterial cultures and commercial kits you will adopt for the extraction... cloning it is important that the preparation is pure from other nucleic acids (genomic DNA and RNA), ...

...unique changes in their spectral properties upon exposure to a specific wavelength of light. PA-FPs can ...fluorescence, to a brighter fluorescent state by exposure to a specific wavelength of light. The switch ...switches from green to red fluorescence. mEosFP exposure to UV light causes an irreversible cleavage near...formation of mEosFP’s chromophore requires a temperature below 30°C and this is not ideal for experiments...emission of green fluorescence, but then further exposure to blue light also inactivates the chromophore...state. Dronpa can be reversibly reactivated by exposure to UV light. The fact that blue light both activates...photons are being emitted, making it easier to capture a clear image above background. The majority of...

...applications.   Figure 1: Live-cell labeling strategies. The green structure represents a fluorophore... end up linked to whatever molecule you choose (Figure 1). Just express the fusion protein and add a specific...fluorophore or other useful ligand, gray structure is the protein of interest, and black is the fusion tag ...-tag construct can help you better detect dim structures or low levels of expression with the same imaging...super-resolution or single-molecule techniques.   Figure 2: Two-color super-resolution imaging of ER and... enables applications like multi-color imaging (Figure 2). If you’re working with purified proteins in...colors depending on the needs of your experiment (Figure 3). And using self-labeling tags makes updating...

... alert the day of the procedure. Mice move much more quickly than cell cultures do, and tired researchers... some nerves. Following safety procedures and practicing safety culture, however, can let you work with...risks and how to minimize them. Built-in safety features   When viruses were first being engineered as ...still enter (and thus infect) cells, this safety feature prevents the virus from replicating and spreading... including yourself as the researcher.   Figure 1: Separation of retroviral packaging components...precautions to take, and if something does happen, ensure you can receive appropriate treatment and/or monitoring...monitoring. Virus-specific concerns   In nature, some viruses are more dangerous than others, and the...

... to ensure all plasmids pass our high-quality standards and contain the expected plasmid features.  ...based on SnapGene’s “Common Feature” library — with some additional features added by the QC team — and...the plasmid to ensure our assembly result is accurate The gene/insert or any major feature highlighted by...Nobody’s perfect! This is a platitude I’m sure we have all heard. It’s a truth that extends to both people...optimizing experiments, to false conclusions.  Figure 1. Potential points where DNA errors can be introduced... Figure 2. Addgene’s basic QC process. Created with BioRender.com. Once Addgene receives deposited...resolving a variety of QC issues. This process ensures that any potential sequence discrepancies can be...

...also stable at this temperature and can bind to the primers.  Extension- The temperature is then raised slightly...slightly to Taq polymerase’s ideal temperature (70-75oC). At this temperature Taq polymerase can synthesize...and the use of a fluorometer feature built into the thermocycler to measure that fluorescent output. With...resistant enzyme that can withstand changes in temperature. Taq was first identified in the late 1960s during...separation of the two DNA strands.  Annealing- The temperature is then dropped to a range in which the forward...forward and reverse primers are stable. At this temperature the primers can anneal to the single stranded...the target DNA quickly and accurately.  Figure 1: Steps in PCR reaction   This process of ...