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.... For example, the light-gated cation channel, Channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2), exists in several states: closed...of the patch cable (although you may be able to purchase one pre-made instead). Laser stimulation     ...      In the video above, Channelrhodopsin 2 (Chr2) has been expressed in the motor cortex of a mouse...determine the ideal excitation). Lasers can be purchased through Laserglow, which caters to optogenetics...PMID: 22157972. 3. Britt JP, et al. Use of channelrhodopsin for activation of CNS neurons. Current protocols...editorial board, Jacqueline N Crawley  [et al]. 2012;Chapter 2:Unit2 16. doi: 10.1002/0471142301.ns0216s58. ...

...conjugate, and changing your reporter molecule requires either re-conjugating or re-purchasing your primary...have to be re-validated each time a new lot is purchased. Monoclonal antibodies, on the other hand, may...to switch from one readout method to another or change primary antibodies as needed. However, more antibodies...background noise as well, and multiplexing is challenging and limited. Direct westerns typically rely on...starting from tissue, you’ll likely want to use a mechanical method before your enzyme lysis. For cell cultures...you have an expert around, you’ll likely want to purchase one. If you need a single-percentage gel, you ...assumption that a specific protein’s expression has not changed due to ‌experimental conditions. You then normalize...

...anywhere.  Chapter 4 - JEI's mission and how they assess whether or not their achieving it. Chapter 5 - JEI's...Emerging Investigators Podcast breakdown Intro Chapter 1 - Introduction to Mark Springel, Olivia Ho-Shing...Ho-Shing, and the Journal of Emerging Investigators. Chapter 2 - Getting high school students and teachers interested...the manuscript review/submission process at JEI. Chapter 3 - JEI target audience and their current readership...and developing one-on-one mentorship programs. Chapter 6 and Outro - Interview with high school student...

...contractions, and the control of voltage gated ion channels all depend on transmitting and sensing electrical...phenomenon you will likely want to monitor the voltage change across the membrane of cardiac cells. Similarly... out by action potentials which are electrical charges propagated through multiple cells to do things ...classified by their fluorescent reporter and the mechanism of their voltage sensing component, which separates...a variety of sources – voltage-gated potassium channels found in Drosophila to phosphatases from sea squirts...binding a Janelia Fluor (JF). The voltage-dependent changes in rhodopsin modulate the degree of quenching of...vectors become invaluable. Viral vectors are mechanisms by which genetic components can be delivered ...

...oligomerize, protein charge, and actual molecular size – it is possible that a large or charged FP fusion can...also provide interesting insights into disease mechanisms and protein function. Getting ready to determine...Therefore, it can be beneficial to employ well-characterized marker proteins tagged with FPs to highlight...incorrect detection of one fluorescent signal in a channel setup for a different fluorescent signal) and photobleaching...can change the subcellular localization of a protein of interest. Scientists are continuously updating ...Endogenous Gene Tagging in Human Cells Check Out the Michael Davidson Fluorescent Protein Collection Get Tips...

...technologies currently available, you now face the challenge of trying to figure out what system might work... also consider FastCloning, first described by Chaokun Li and colleagues. Here you simply PCR-amplify ...overhangs left over from the PCR process (the precise mechanism isn’t well understood). Finally, TOPO cloning ...assembly can cost over $15.00 per reaction if you purchase a pre-made mix. Nonetheless, Gibson assembly is...efficient. Gateway cloning also offers a very high chance of success (>95% for a single insert), mostly due...finished constructs at Addgene!). References 1. Li, Chaokun, et al. "FastCloning: a highly simplified, purification-free... Michael G. Lemieux...

...QuantificationPolymerase Chain Reaction Overview and Applications Resources on Addgene.org Protocol: Polymerase Chain Reaction...92. PMID: 19052298. Muhamad P, Chaijaroenkul W, Congpuong K, Na-Bangchang K. SYBR Green I and TaqMan quantitative...available, ddPCR may be a better option for more challenging cases.  Price point If budget is a concern...quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction methods for the determination of amplification of Plasmodium.... PMID: 21554069. Haridan, U. S., Mokhtar, U., Machado, L. R., Abdul Aziz, A. T., Shueb, R. H., Zaid, ...

...because it contains two large heavy chains and two small light chains that stick out to form the “arms” ...access to routinely, and it can be especially challenging when trying to develop antibodies against unstable... derived from a camelid antibody called a heavy chain antibody (HCab). Because of their small size, nanobodies... phagemid pDX_init plasmid, using the fragment exchange (FX) cloning technique which uses Type IIS restriction...production of tag-free proteins for further characterization and analysis. In a rapid response to the COVID...Versatile High-Throughput Cloning System for Characterization of Enzyme Variants. In: Methods in Molecular...

...universities change their format of interview from a travel day to an online call in response to challenges on ...program itself. Picking a mentor comes with many challenges, and the flood of interview requests and visitation...standards for hybrid, virtual, and in-person events change seemingly daily (and are inconsistent between universities...idea is that the online meeting will give you a chance to get to know the faculty that you might be working...on their end. Though the quick changes in plans was stressful in and of itself, the flexibility allowed...everyone involved in the process. COVID-19 has changed many aspects of academia, and the PhD application...

...reversibly switchable (e.g. rsEGFP, Dreiklang). Fluorescent Timers (FT): These proteins change their color...Sensors: These FPs change their excitation/emission behavior upon environmental changes (e.g. pH, Ca2+ flux.../em spectra (e.g. mKeima) or change fluorescent intensity upon pH changes (e.g. pHluorin, pHTomato). ...wavelength. This means that the emission wavelength can change. In a few cases, the initial state of the protein...

...earlier this year by the White House as a Champion of Change, a program created as part of President Barack...at Addgene as a BIOFAB kit comprised of well-characterized bacterial transcription and translation initiation...entirety of a cell. That's a big long-term technical challenge. We have a strategy that organizes how we start...engineered. For example, Boole’s logic shows up in mechanical systems, plumbing, computers, and now through...We know from our testing of these parts that the chance your genes will be expressed at the level you want...rebuilding existing genomes.) BIOFAB is laying down a challenge to its users and to the design community: If you...

... Biology (Kimball et al., 2020). Benefits and Challenges CUREs inspire students to take ownership of their...research projects have also been proposed as a mechanism for increasing diversity and inclusion in STEM...experience on their resumes). CUREs are not without challenges. Real research is messy, and it can be difficult...instructors, and provides opportunities for students to exchange ideas and results with peers and faculty at other...win a Nobel!   Jason Pellettieri is Professor and Chair of the Biology Department at Keene State College...(4):602-606. Brian, D. 1996, Einstein: A Life. Chapter 17, Einstein Discovers America. New York./  Callahan...Part I – guided inquiry – purification and characterization of a fusion protein: Histidine tag, malate...

...generating the standard curve for qPCR can be challenging to get right. Here at Addgene, we use a linearized...droplet generation oil are moved through small channels to create a water-in-oil emulsion containing approximately...factor of virus Most droplet readers have a few channels for detecting fluorescence so that it is possible... you should only need to use one. However, two channels can be used to examine the integrity of the viral.../s is recommended to ensure an even temperature change among all of the droplets, but you can go as low...droplet digital PCR for vaccine evaluation in challenged monkeys and TB diagnosis." Emerging microbes ...on the Addgene blog Read more about polymerase chain reaction Browse our blog posts related to viral ...

...base precisely? Until 2016, precise single base changes were only possible through exploiting the homology-directed...efficiently than before. A base editor precisely changes a single base with an efficiency typically ranging...ranging from 25-75%, while the success of precise change via HDR limited to 0-5%. This blog post covers ...wonder if a CRISPR-base editor can perform this change. However, there are no naturally known 'DNA adenosine...used to detect success. Although there is a slim chance of generating indels with base editors, keep in... 627-630. PubMed PMID: 29476916. 10. Kang, Beum-Chang, et al. "Precision genome engineering through adenine...plants (2018): 1. PubMed PMID: 29867128. 11. Li, Chao, et al. "Expanded base editing in rice and wheat...

...concept for further development. Figure 2: Mechanisms of deaminase-based adenine transversion editors...editor development going forward. Figure 3: Mechanism of gGBE. Created with BioRender.com. Base ...Acronym Full name Notes   Base transition Base change between purines (A ↔ G) or between pyrimidines ...pyrimidines (C ↔ T).   Base transversion Base change from purine (A or G) to pyrimidine (C or T) or vice-versa...doi.org/10.1038/s41587-023-01821-9 He, Y., Zhou, X., Chang, C., Chen, G., Liu, W., Li, G., Fan, X., Sun, M....M., Miao, C., Huang, Q., Ma, Y., Yuan, F., & Chang, X. (2024). Protein language models-assisted optimization...Li, J., Ren, J., Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., Tang, H., Chang, X., Yu, Y., & Wei, W. (2024). Programmable DNA ...

...light. Activation of these neurons via the channel Channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2) reduced glutamate transmission... but now we’ll focus on how viral vectors have changed the scope and power of three commonly used behavioral... confirms the previously suggested inhibitory mechanism of locomotor sensitization and might open new ...the open (risky). Taking advantage of these characteristic traits, rodents can be used to study anxiety...mouse to deliver Cre-dependent expression of  Channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2), a modified receptor protein that...Central PMCID: PMC6213283. Bahi, Amine, Vijay Chandrasekar, and Jean-Luc Dreyer. "Selective lentiviral-...

...cell-type and temporal precision. In ICSS, a test chamber is used in which a nose-poke at a particular hole...but is considerably simpler than ICSS. The test chamber is divided into two halves that are distinguished...animal only receives stimulation in one of the two chambers (see image below). If a circuit is reinforcing...animal will prefer to spend most of its time in the chamber in which it receives the stimulation (conversely...it will spend most of its times in the opposite chamber) [2]. Laser activation is usually controlled automatically...specific behavior but that they more precisely characterized with spatial (CA1), temporal (real-time inhibition... the field benefits from collaboration and the exchange of ideas. The rapid spread of optogenetics throughout...

... problem, how can one little change make a difference? Individual changes to our behavior can lead to ...By initiating little changes in ourselves, we can both influence others to change their behavior and we... Recycling and Innovations posts. Making small changes in your daily habits can feel ineffective or unimportant...Green Lab also has resources and even a freezer challenge that your university could join. Find alternatives...

...this rapidly changing environment. In particular, we are working to understand what challenges remain in ...Addgene saw big changes in 2022, from the launch of a new material to the redesign of a community resource...around the world, are learning to navigate the changes brought about by the pandemic. As we adjust, we...learn from, and a compelling future to plan in the changing landscape of science. We are therefore embarking...to serve the scientific community as we grow and change to meet its ever-evolving needs. For now, we have...

...domain is interesting because by changing certain amino acids you can change the specificity,” explained Zhanar...she hopes will change the intracellular localization of RNA. “You can think of changing bases to other... Abil of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The PUF proteins include eight modular repeats...binds a consecutive base in its RNA target. By changing amino acids, it’s possible to produce a protein...

...see below). Importantly, although their role has changed, restriction enzymes are certainly not dead yet...Introduced in 1977, Sanger sequencing, also known as chain-terminating or dideoxy sequencing, was a major breakthrough...biology98.3 (1975): 503-517. PubMed PMID: 1195397. 2. Chang, Judy C., and Yuet Wai Kan. "A sensitive new prenatal...hybridization for detection of gene copy number changes." Protocols for Nucleic Acid Analysis by Nonradioactive... PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2743315. 5. Roberts, Richard J. "How restriction enzymes became the workhorses...Nicklen, and Alan R. Coulson. "DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors." Proceedings of the National...: PMC431765. 8. Heather, James M., and Benjamin Chain. "The sequence of sequencers: The history of sequencing...

...Precision genome editing faces the challenges above and more. One chief challenge is upregulating HDR in mature...complex oligonucleotide treatment comes with many challenges, researchers have begun to explore genome editing...approaches for exon skipping. Addgene depositor Charles Gersbach used paired zinc finger nucleases to remove...highest-ranking predicted off-target sites. Each paper characterizes additional, unique facets of CRISPR DMD therapy... the time to clinical approval. Even with the challenges precision editing faces, it’s encouraging to ...Mireault AA, McAnally JR, Li H, Sanchez-Ortiz E, Bhattacharyya S, Shelton JM, Bassel-Duby R, Olson EN. Postnatal...

...//doi.org/10.1038/s41592-025-02962-2 Xiong, H., Chang, Q., Ding, J., Wang, S., Zhang, W., Li, Y., Wu, ...high yields for your viral vector preps can be a challenge. You probably know yield is influenced by many...transcriptome and preserves it for later retrieval (Chao et al., 2026). Figure 3: Schematic of native... and TimeVault (bottom) components. Adapted from Chao et al., 2026. Created with BioRender.com. TimeVault... a tool like this! Find TimeVault plasmids here! Chao, Y.-K., Wu, M., Gong, Q., & Chen, F. (2026). A genetically...et al., 2025). Figure 4: Summary of the changes from wild type E. coli to the new Ochre strain.... to a lack of suitable tools. To address this challenge, the Institute for Protein Innovation (IPI) is...

... #1, any change in the normalized intensity of your POI could reflect either a genuine change in your ...your POI, but simply whether its concentration changes in response to experimental parameters. This is... intensity. Researchers use later steps in this chain (blue) to infer or calculate things about earlier... even hit the gel. But what if your experiment changes the expression of your loading control without ...your POI or an opposite change in your loading control. Assumption #2: The loading control can be accurately...become extremely susceptible to error, since tiny changes in intensity can reflect massive differences in...

...Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG). These changes mean our content is both available and accessible...expanded a growing collection of thoroughly characterized antibodies, and our contributions to key research...building a portal to easily share sequences and characterization data for over 150,000 plasmids, empowering...closer to making an impact on humanity's greatest challenges. Thank you for being part of this incredible ... (2024). A consensus platform for antibody characterization. Nature Protocols. https://doi.org/10.1038...Cable, H., & Longworth, S. (2024). Antibody characterization is critical to enhance reproducibility in ...

...engineering, Dr. Jennifer Doudna and Dr. Emmanuelle Charpentier. I was joined by Addgene Scientist Matt Ferenc...and Joan Steitz. This award ceremony honored Charpentier and Doudna, who talked about their research leading... leading up to the discovery of the mechanism of dual-RNA-guided DNA cleavage in adaptive bacterial immunity...simpler 1 protein - 1 RNA system Drs. Dounda and Charpentier met at a 2011 conference and decided to collaborate... project started with their labs studying the mechanisms of RNAi, the field for which Craig Mello and ...was a simpler 1 protein - 1 RNA system.  Dr. Charpentier advocated for the crucial role of basic research...

... approaches a host cell surface are complex polysaccharide structures, many of which are easily varied... to be explored and exploited. With better characterization, these proteins could function as surrogate...surrogate antibodies for identifying and characterizing sugars and sugar-containing molecules in molecular biology...and pressure. Nebulization units, which can be purchased cheaply, are small plastic containers that can... can perform whole genome amplification (by a mechanism known as multiple displacement amplification) ...cloning site of the vector. In order to reduce the chances of some clones being outcompeted by others in liquid...colonies of interest, sequence the inserted DNA and characterize your new putative host cell-binding proteins...

...gel causes the negatively charged proteins to migrate toward the positive charge at the bottom of the gel...and the protein is separated through a matrix by charge. In a denaturing western, the protein is denatured...buffer. These systems, however, require you to purchase expensive system-specific sandwiches.   ...while a western blot detects denatured polypeptide chains. The protein regions available for antibody binding...protein in its native state versus the polypeptide chain. Consequently, antibodies validated for IP might...addition to protein abundance, westerns detect changes to a protein’s post-translational modifications...

...variable domains of heavy chain only antibodies) (B) Nanomice express hybrid heavy-chain only antibodies that...’s spotlight after researchers discovered heavy-chain only antibodies in the serum of a camel and soon...)!      Figure 1: Comparison of a heavy-chain only antibody and single-domain antibody, under ...need for a species that naturally produces heavy-chain only antibodies. (A) Overview of genetic modifications... way since the serendipitous discovery of heavy-chain only antibodies in a camel. And I suspect we will...

...where funding cycles shift, regulations change, and supply chains strain, Addgene remains a constant. Behind...Asuru, T. R., Chandrasekar, K., Narayanan, S., Srivastava, P., Tiwari, M., Chattopadhyay, S., Mehdi, F...about the need for more open-source, highly characterized recombinant antibodies, so we're partnering ...Rebolledo, M. C., Lorieux, M., Alvarez, M. F., & Chavarriaga, P. (2025). Revealing the role of the AGO4 gene...